shit for school (notes)

Beyond Good & Evil – Friedrich Nietzsche

Section 1 : On the Prejudices of Philosophers

Nietzsche accuses philosophers of dogmatism (unfounded positiveness in matters of opinion; arrogant assertion of opinions as truths)

Confronts what he calls faith in opposite values, belief that the world can be divided into opposites.. i.e. opposition of truth and falsehood. Relationship of “opposites” are far more compex, our sense of truths stem from our own prejudices (deception and falsehood).
No point of view can comprehend absolute truth: no point of view can comprehend absolute truth, there are only different perspectives from which one can see a matter. One perspective is distorting. Our truths are not absolute but are particular interpretations of what we see.
Example: Nietzsche argues that conscious thinking comes from instinct. We unintentionally value falsehood because it’s a condition of life. Philosophical systems have been a memoir and have already set up a notion of values already to justify “truths”.
Believes that philosophy is a confession of a philosopher, an insight of philosophers character.
i.e. philosophers urged us to live “according to nature” to re-create nature in the image they DESIRED. Philosophy creates the world in its own image; cardinal instinct.

Argues Kant gives circular reasons for believing in a priori judgments (derived by logic, without observed facts). We need to believes in a priori judgments.

Error 1 : mistaking cause and effect (mistaking the effect for the cause). Avoiding the actual representations of the cause.
Error 2 : false causality. Peoples insecurities >> when compared to a far more greater and intricate system in which they live, tend to invent causes that they think are behind their actions. Spirit of cause instead of reality
Error 3 : imaginary causes – fear of the unknown. People try to explain things that happen around them with something they have control of.. unknown cause >> we try to draw out memory of some earlier familiar cause and apply it to the current situation, making the unknown into the familiar. Habitual process of exploring real causes. Driving out unknown, don’t want to look at things in new perspective >> this gives comfort and hope. i.e. death, sufferings, pain.
Error 4: Free will (the doctrine that the conduct of human beings expresses personal choice and is not simply determined by physical or divine forces.) – nietz argues free will is an illusion, invented to impose guilt on somebody, i.e. purpose of punishment which morality and religion use as a means of control.

Our truth = particular interpretations of what we see = bias
Philosophers want their “will” to be the truth. [imposing own prejudice]



Section 2 : The Free Spirit

Nietzsche >> knowledge relies on simplifying the truth, makes it expressible in language and understandable to all. Our will to knowledge = our will to ignorance.
Anything made understandable to most people has been distorted/simplified…
Thus truth = artificial certainties
People tied to assumptions and prejudice // we misunderstand truly deep thoughts// can only understand things on a level that our intellect can handle// thus simplify ideas that are above us.. // free spirit must appear masked to people.

Current morality based on origins and intentions, label action as good or bad, simplification of intentions, outward intentions are mere surface that covers unconscious motivation

Free spirit do not tie down to any certainties of “truth” that are based on prejudice.
Rather radical skepticism (to question everything).

Good philosopher frees spirit from their prejudice.

“free spirits” in us thrive on isolation and independence, though this is a difficult and dangerous life to lead.
Still, free spirits devoted to knowledge will commit themselves to forgoing their independence and mingling with others.

Pre-moral period – value of an action is found in its consequence
Moral period – value of an action is found in its origin (motive)

he suggests that we admit nothing as "real" except our drives, desires, and passions. Thought, for instance, he suggests, is ultimately just the relation of our different drives to one another.

Material world stems from organic world.
Will does not affect nerves or dead matter, but only other wills.

Human behavior dictated by the will to power (main driving force in man: achievement, ambition, the striving to reach the highest possible position in life) // thought is then not an ideal rational activity but a struggle between diff. drives within the thinker.
Will to power is present in dead matter too.. just lack organization and cohesion of human body.

nature of free spirits and profound thinkers.
These people often need "masks" to disguise their true nature.
Most people are unable to understand them and will understand them in a way that’s different from their true self. To be independent, they must not allow themselves to become attached to anything.. i.e. people, science, or virtues they admire in themselves. ----new species of philosophers that he sees coming as "attempters," free spirits who will shun dogmatism and embrace the hardships of independence of mind and spirit.

Section 3 : The Religious Disposition

Religion demands sacrifice i.e. primitive religion: love of first born. Sacrifice is refined, so that we sacrifice ourselves instead (surrendering will, freedom, strength to God).

Religion—
To ruling class: relate to their subjects and keep them in line
To rising class: teaches self-discipline and prepares it for future rule.
To masses: teaches them to rest content in their lowly position

Christianity --- to preserve and care of the human species (majority sick and weak of spirit)… thus it reverses moral values. Value suffering and weakness rather than good health and strength.
Slave revolt of morality – those who were neither healthy, strong, nor free resented those who were in power and identified them as “evil”.. labeling weak, sick, and poor as “good”. Christianity – rest content in our weakness rather than grow strong, weak people will be rewarded in heaven.

Science has become powerful >> nihilism – no meaning at all; there are just the laws of physics and the interactions of matter >> dangerous, humans need something to aim for, goals.. or we give up on life entirely.

Nietz – universe is constantly changing/process of becoming.. but religion/philosophy is looking for a permanent way to ground things. To understand nothing is fixed/true, we free ourselves from dogmatism & faith.


Section 4 : Epigrams and Interludes

Habit of seeing our motivation and drives = transparent and easily understood
But we are more complicating.. conflicting drives.

Our pride shields us from seeing ourselves for who we really are.. self-deception. Unconsciously betray ourselves
If we see our mind as a battlefield of competing drives, we can no longer assume that we can take an unbiased look at ourselves. What we think of ourselves is always biased by the perspective of whatever drive is dominant at a particular time, and does not represent the whole complex of drives that make us up.

morality is no longer seen as a simple and rational matter, but comes to represent the competing drives within us and their drive to remake our view of the world in the image they desire.

Reasons, thoughts, morality… = just expression of different drives; there is no will that is purely our own.
Morality does not exist in itself, but is instead just a way of looking at the world that is directed by our inner drives.


Section 5 : Natural History of Morals

Moral philosophers justify their own morality, unable to see a perspective outside of their own.

When we see a tree, we don’t see the detail of every branch and leaf, but only glance at the rough shape of the whole, and from that we construct all the smaller details in our head. When we read a book, we grasp a few words and then fit those words into what we already think we know. Nietz suggests we are all inventors, artists, and liars: our so-called knowledge is our own make believe.

Pple differ in what they think is worth pursuing, but also in what the take to be possession of what they pursue.

One man feels he possesses a woman if he can sex her, while another feels this possession is only worthwhile if the woman is willing to sacrifice for him.

Moral values largely based on fear – agressors/liveliness seen as a threat, morality condemns it, preferring safety of tamed. Morality of herd. (states other moralities are immoral)
How can opposite deeds ultimately boil down to the same will? The will to power, gain feeling of power. Nietz says we learn to channel our will to power and redirect it to give it a refined, more subtle and higher expression.

Beating up neighbor VS resisting urge to beat up neighbor and give em’ a gift (sublimate/channel my will to power)… now will feel that neighbor is indebted to me and will have a more greater feeling of power.
Stresses that minority that is potentially great has been seduced by the preaching of the herd, attempting to follow same rules as the herd.
Rules exist to keep these freer, more dangerous spirits in line.


Section 6 : We Scholars

Criticizes scholars – not self-sufficient or creative… and thrive on mediocrity that seeks to eliminate everything that is unusual or irregular.




Section 7 : Our Virtues

Some people have stronger, more refined spirits than others. The idea of divine justice was invented to make us believe we’re all equal on some level.

To believe in "truth" is to allow one's perspective to become locked, so that one is unable to see a matter from any different point of view.
Pursuit of knowledge = looking at things from all sorts of angles. See all “truths” as fixed perspectives

Pain and pleasure are mere sensations that point to deeper drives working within us. To rest content with them as the ultimate basis of any system displays an unwillingness to dig deeper.


Section 8 : People and Fatherlands

free spirits want to be something new, to create new values, and the pursuit of knowledge is of secondary importance.

Section 9 : What is Noble

Life is will to power, says Nietzsche, and will to power is exploitation.

The masters see themselves- -strong, healthy, and powerful--as "good," and look down upon the weak, poor, unhappy slaves as "bad." The slaves, on the other hand, come to see their oppressive masters as "evil," and develop the concept of "good" to describe themselves in contrast to these masters.

Development of language; a means of expressing what people share in common and can understand of one another. Whatever is exceptional and uncommon is difficult to express in language and difficult for the majority to understand.
The greater a thought is, the longer it takes for ones descendants to recognize it. Higher spirits thus misunderstood and made to suffer.
In order to ward of unwanted pity, these higher spirits create masks that conceal this suffering from the public. The only thing worse than being misunderstood is being understood; that would mean someone else had been made to endure their suffering as well.
Language can only capture thoughts and ideas that are relatively rigid and fixed: the most beautiful, free- moving thoughts always escape expression.
Language is rigid and talks about facts and things, whereas the universe is fundamentally in flux: there are no fixed facts or things. Nietzsche expresses the difficulty of putting thoughts into words

All life and will to power = exploitation

Eternal recurrence – trying to make us think about what we value in life. Would we do it over and over again?

Amor Fati (love of fate) – used to describe an attitude in which one sees everything that happens in ones life, including suffering and loss, as good. Everything that happens is destinys way of reaching its ultimate purpose. Acceptance of events/situations in ones life.

Ubermensch – goal for humanity
Annihilator: person who doesn’t just accept societal norms
Dancer: rhythm of their own style
Child: child walks all over the place to ponder and explore




Sigmund Freud – civilization and its discontents

Tension between civilization and the individual; quest for instinctual freedom and civilizations demand for conformity and instinctual repression.

Humans primitive instincts: example >> the desire to kill and the insatiable craving for sexual gratification [harmful to human community], thus civilization creates laws that prohibit killing, rape, adultery, etc. implements punishments if laws are broken.
-- inherent quality of civilization, instills perpetual feelings of discontent in its citizens.

Certain characteristic instincts are unchangeable; desires for sex, predisposition to violent aggression towards authoritative figures and towards sexual competitors; both obstruct the gratification of a person’s instincts.

Human beings are governed by the pleasure principle, which is satisfied by the instincts.

------

Oceanic feeling – psychological feeling of religion; feelings of eternity where individual feels connected to something much larger than himself.
-- freud argues that this is merely a feeling of helplessness and powerlessness against fate
Religion = feelings of helplessness, to seek a father figure for aid, thus religion.

Pleasure principle – try to experience pleasure and avoid pain
Reality principle - ^ that this is not always possible because the pleasures are not always available… i.e. mom’s breast milk

Ego (self) and object (form of something which exists ‘outside’, an external world)

Polliative Measures [lighten burden of this world]:
- powerful deflection (science & technology)
- substitutive satisfaction (movies)
- intoxication

Sources of suffering (body, external world, & relations w/ others)

Ego of child feels oceanic feeling when it grasps that there are negative aspects of reality that it wishes to separate itself from. But ego is also hoping to avoid displeasure.

Freud claims purpose of life is simply the programme of the pleasure principle.
Then explores diff styles of human adaptation used to secure happiness from the world while also trying to avoid/limit suffering.

Paradox of civilization – took we have created to protect ourselves from unhappiness, yet is largest source of unhappiness.

People > become neurotic > cannot tolerate the frustration which society imposes > cultural ideals

Technology = mixed blessing

Civilization must make compromises of happiness to fulfill primary goal of bringing people in peaceful harmony.
Civilization built out of wish-fulfillments of the human ideals of control, beauty, order, etc.

Anal eroticism that develops into a need for order and cleanliness
Sublimation of instincts (diverts the flow of instinctual energy from its immediate sexual desire and subordinates it to cultural endeavors) into useful actions >> makes it possible for higher physical activities, scientific or ideological, to play an important part in civilized life.
-- civilization creates discontent and mental pathology (deviation from a healthy, normal condition) within its members through repression of instinct (sexual desire > platonic)


Civilization largely responsible for misery and suffering
Primitive people leadings simple lives, seem happy with few wants.

Repression of instinct causes social disharmony among humans.

Attempts speculation of the developmental history of civilization, which he supposed coincided with man learning to stand upright.
Hypothesis of totem and taboo – human culture is bound up in Oedipus drama of brothers banding together to kill father to get with own mother, then creating culture that rules to mediate ambivalent instinctual desires.

Ananke (necessity) and Eros (love).
Love brings a society together.

Aim-inhibited love (affection) // path of love is risky
To unite people. Civilization threatens love with restrictions

Erotic love : satisfying but time consuming of civilization
Civilization restrict sexual life; expand cultural unit
Freud: if something feels good why would you reject your sexual impulse?

Love cannot be the answer, concludes that an aggressive drive exists in all human beings; and while the love instinct (eros) can be help society unite its members together, the aggressive instinct harms the society; so then this aggressive nature must be directed to another rival culture or repressed.

Unaltered hostile-feeling in the hearts of man, civilization primarily exists to curb and restrain these impulses.
Trade in enjoying his happiness for a portion of security.

Freud believed that humans were driven by two conflicting central desires:
eros – libido (survival, hunger, thirst, sex)
thanatos – death (represented an urge in all living things to return to state of calm/inorganic or dead state)

Freud admits may be difficult to accept his views of human nature as being predisposed towards death and destruction

Super-ego – only partly conscience and beyond that, unconscious feelings of guilt
Ego – partly conscious and contains the defense mechanisms and the capabilities to calculate, reason, and plan
Id – the wholly conscience domain of the mind

Aggressive human child >> suppressed in society >> aggressive energy develop into the super-ego >> punishes the ego for transgressions committed (guilt) >> everyone must submit to feelings of guilt; aggressive instincts must be repressed >> guilt and neurotic repression of instinct is the price we pay to live in families/communities.

Most times guilt is left unconscious and is experienced as anxiety or discontent.

-- intention to represent the sense of guilt as the most important problem in the development of civilization



Rebecca – film by Alfred Hitchcock

Young woman works as a companion to wealthy Edith Van Hopper. Young woman meets aristocratic widower Maxim de Winter and they fall in love, get married. Maxim takes new bride to Manderley where he lives. Servants reluctant to accept the new bride as the new lady of house becus loyal to Maxim’s first wife, Rebecca, who died under mysterious circumstances. Mrs. Danvers (unpleasant freaky housekeeper), obsessed with Rebecca’s beauty and sophistication, Reb’s room is preserved as almost a shrine/almost like idolizing her.
Reb’s cousin Jack (actually one of her lovers) sometimes appears at the house when Maxim is away, knows Mrs. Danvers very well.
New Mrs. De Winters intimidated by Mrs. Danvers and responsibilities of being new rich housewife. She doubts her relationship with Maxim. Continuous presence of Rebecca haunts her.
Mrs. De Winter suggests to maxim to throw a costume party, maxim reluctantly consents, mrs. De winters excitedly plans her own costume in secret, but mrs. Danvers suggests that she copy Caroline de Winter, an ancestor, whose portrait hangs up in the upstairs hallway.
New bride shows her costume to maxim, maxim gets pissed and tells her to change… it’s the same costume Rebecca wore the previous year. She confronts mrs. Danvers, mrs. Danvers retaliates by saying she will never take rebecca’s place and tries to convince her to commit suicide. New bride snaps out of her own trance and rushes downstairs to where a ship has been spotted foundering off the coast.
Hears news about sunken boat with rebecca’s body in it. Finds maxim from the cottage on the shore. From beginning of marriage, he and Rebecca hated each other; agreed to keep up appearances of a real marriage for the sake of family honor. Rebecca started getting careless, going MIA and having affair with Jack (maxim was aware).
One night Rebecca was awaiting Jack in the cottage only to find Maxim come in, she tells Maxim that shes pregnant with Jacks child… during argument, she falls, hits her dead, and dies.. maxim took the body out in a boat which he than sank.
Jack tells police investigation Rebecca wasn’t suicidal, tries to black Maxim with it, plan backfires. Maxim under suspicion of murder. Doctor reveals Rebecca was not pregnant but had cancer and tried to get goad him into killing her as an indirect means of suicide.
Maxim returns home, his wife safe and sound, but his house on fire set by the crazy mrs. Danvers who dies in the flames.
Deconstruction generally attempts to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point.



Beyond Good & Evil – film by Woody Allen

Judah: wealthy, ophthalmologist, affair, born Jewish
Clifford: unhappy, romantic, jewish, artistic, film maker, sexless marriage
Lester: cheesy, egotistical, sleezy, successful TV producer sitcom
Halley: humble, quiet, TV producer for PBS, smart, ambitious
Dolores: crazy, annoying, obsessed, misunderstood
Jack: thuggish mob brother to Judah
Ben: Blind, rabbi, preist

God’s role in establishing ethical values, and whether the world would be valueless if God didn’t exist; deals with moral philosophy; reflect on moral reasoning

Judah: God is a luxury I cant afford. Jack lives in the real world, you live in the kingdom of heaven.

Saul: God sees, God judges; rewards righteous, punishes wicked.

May: might makes right (a society’s view of right and wrong is determined by those currently in power.)

Ben: there has to be a moral structure, some kind of higher power – basis of life

Judah: fighting impulse to confess, but does not want to live in a world without consequence.

Cliff: slave, utility, and resentment. Constantly shifting scale of value

Saul: prefers God over truth; truth changes in time and culture; better life by believing

* moral structure to universe – without this, Judah would not be protagonist
Film also takes position that might makes right

Dramatic main plot: murder story & Comic subplot: love triangle of lester, halley, and Cliff

- murderer gets away with murder
- girl gets with cheesy scumbag instead of the guy we hoped for.
-- this is reality, works against Hollywood films

- Judah believes in no God; has no moral values (plato would reject this)
- Cliff believes in no God; has moral values
- Ben believes in a God; has moral values

Film suggests theres a real world. Real world is money in film industry.

Ben thinks there are values to let us know how to live, but in Nietzsche’s point of view, this is constructed by humans. Ben, the one truly good and moral character who believes deep in his heart that the universe does have a moral structure and meaning is completely blind by the end of the film. The man who will free Prometheus is not yet born (Hercules).


Tragedy – Dionysia
Satyr – a semi-divine figure that lives in the woods; music & dancing.
Satyr – comic relief. Half goat half man.
Chthonic – first generation Gods, gives birth to Titans. Olympians.
Myth – Fall. Story that depicts things the way they really are.
Trickster – figure that tries to outsmart gods but backfires
Native American culture: wolves are the tricksters.
Promethius is considered a trickster.
Hesoid & Homer – two writers that told what the gods are about
Etiology – myth that explains common institutional works.

Zeus is a tyrant.

Promethius tries to give us the gift of civilization & fire. He taught us how to deal with medicine, copper, iron, gold (construction of weapon). Stole fire from gods; thus disturbing the balance of power between human and divine; brought the divine closer to the mortal, disturbing the natural order of things.

All human culture comes from Promethius. Every step of civilization brings people further from the Garden of Eden.
-- loves humanity: Zeus planned to destroy humanity by demanding that parts of animals slaughtered for food be sacrificed to him. Prometheus wrapped the bones in fat to make them look appetizing and tricked Zeus into accepting this part as his sacrifice while human beings kept the meat.
He has also given human beings blind hope and deprived them of the power to see their deaths. Prometheus's pity for humanity saved the human race

Kratus and Bia (zeus servants) take Prometheus to mountain, with Hephaestus following. Prometheus is to be chained for giving fire to humans. Hephaestus is sympathetic but must obey to chain him. Prometheus stole fire from gods and gave it to humans.
Having the gift of prophecy, Prometheus most likely knows that Zeus will in the future send an eagle to gnaw on his liver.
Oceanids [daughters of oceanus] sympathize for Prometheus.

Prometheus prophesizes zeus’ downfall, and that zeus will feel him, and they will be friends; suggesting that his own power, or his knowledge of the future, will serve to reestablish universal harmony by restoring friendship to its proper place in the universe.
seems to have a reasonable and balanced view of his suffering: eventually it will lead to a balancing out of the proper values.
Prometheus's speeches are meant to draw our attention to Zeus's tyranny rather than Prometheus's crime
- oceanus tries to help Prometheus, to urge zeus to free Pro, but Pro says stay out of this.
- Lo is being tortured by zeus; comes across the Chorus and Prometheus; asks about him.. lo says in dreams she heard a voice telling her to give up her virginity to zeus. Io’s father threw her out, didn’t wanna piss off zeus. She transformed into a cow, a fly.. Pro. Prophesizes she will travel through world avoiding dangerous monsters/encounters.
- a son greater than zeus will overthrow him.. only if io’s descendant frees Prometheus.
- prometheus’s attitude shifts to anger with zeus; Prometheus shouts out his prophecy that Zeus, though he is confident now, will one day be destroyed by a far more powerful offspring who will be a better fighter and have recourse to greater weapons. This will fulfill the curse of Chronus, Zeus's own deposed father. Only Prometheus himself can prevent Zeus's downfall.
- Hermes, Zeus's messenger, enters and demands that Prometheus disclose the secret of Zeus's dangerous marriage. Prometheus says he’s not afraid and wont say.
- Hermes exclaims that this sort of stubbornness is what got Prometheus in trouble in the first place, and Prometheus answers that he would rather be chained to the rock than be a slave to Zeus. Hermes accuses him of lacking wisdom. Prometheus mocks Hermes for thinking that he can be convinced to save Zeus through threats. Only his release will entice him to speak. Hermes threatens that Prometheus will be entombed within the rock and taken down to Tartarus, from which he will emerge much later only to have an eagle daily feast on his liver. This punishment will not end until another god agrees to go to Tartarus and take Prometheus's place.

- Prometheus responds only to friendship and he will not answer to threats. Zeus rules only by threats and violates friendships.





Plato: Five Dialogues

Euthyphro—

Socrates being prosecuted by Meletus for impiety and corrupting youth of Athens.
Euthyphro prosecutes his own father for murder (Socrates remarks that euthyphro must have advanced knowledge to make bold move.)
- euthryphro’s pops unintentionally killed someone; Euthyphro notes that his family is angry with him for carrying out such a prosecution on behalf of a murderer, but Euthyphro asserts that he knows better than they do the position of divine law regarding what is holy and what is unholy.

Euthyphro does not know how to define what is holy at all.
His decision to prosecute his own father is a sign of narrow- mindedness, not evidence of his expert knowledge.
according to Socrates, knowledge is the greatest good,

euthyphro: what is pious all have a common factor/feature
prosecuting wrongdoers is holy, and not prosecuting them is unholy. (prosecute those who commit injustices is holy is merely an example of a pious act, and not a definition of pious itself.)
that piety is what is agreeable/dear to the gods; Socrates says gods quarrel on what is holy and unholy though, so bad definition
that piety is prayer and sacrifice
Euth. Believes he can teach Socrates about divine matters
Socrates still doesn’t think euthyphro has defined piety; urges Euthyphro to give a more general definition and to identify a standard by which all holy deeds can be recognized as holy.
- by questioning euthryphro, he is trying to reach him and rid him of his ignorance

Plato’s Theory of Form: non material abtract ideas (piety, virtue, justice, piety) possess highest kind of reality; provides us with genuine knowledge. These abstract ideas must have a form; form that exists independently from the object it takes on; forms are transcendent (they do not exist in space and time), transcendent reality of perfection and immorality.
Goal of Socrates: to properly understand and appreciate these Forms, freeing the soal from mundane, material objects.

--true knowledge of a concept comes only when we can properly define it

-- Socrates applies method of elenchus - cross-examination/interrogation
Anamnesis – recollection; Aporia - perplexity

-- Euthyphro's complaints to Socrates that his arguments are being made to go in circles and are not staying still is a further illustration of Socrates' method. Socrates sternly points out to Euthyphro that it is Euthyphro's own arguments and answers that are going in circles. Socrates' role is only that of a questioner
If Euthyphro is the teacher and Socrates is only the student asking questions, then Euthyphro must take responsibility for the material that he teaches.

Euthyphro backs out, ending the dialogue rather abruptly.




Five Dialogues - Meno –

Socrates discussion w/ Meno whether virtue can be taught, or whether it comes rather by practice, or else is acquired by ones birth or nature, or in some other way.

Meno says that there are different virtues for men (managing public affairs, helping friends, harming enemies, and protecting oneself), for women (managing the home, protecting possessions, and being submissive to one's husband), and for children, slaves, the elderly, etc. (metaphor: swarm of virtues like swarm of bees: differ in size, shape, class)
Socrates points not a definition but a list of different kinds of virtue.
Socrates is after the definitive characteristics of virtue in general, the "form" (eidos) of virtue. This idea of forms suggests that there is an ideal, non-physical model for each kind of thing, will eventually play a major role in Plato's dialogues; here form inherent in each physical thing

asking after the single form common to all kinds of virtue

second definition: virtuous is to rule over people (Socrates says nope)
is justice virtue or A virtue? It is a type or virtue, not virtue itself.
Socrates gives example: Roundness, he notes, is a shape, but is not shape itself.

Theatrical definition: virtue is desiring and having ability to acquire (but doesn’t NOT acquiring, virtuous as well?) and (everyone desires good things.. how is that virtuous?) ; definition will not do.
Plato is also showing us that a definition cannot contain the term to be defined--one cannot give a definition of virtue as "virtue" or as "that which is a part of virtue."

Meno: how will you look for virtue when you do not know at all what is it? [if we are seeking the nature of something we do not know, how will we know when we have found it?]

Slave>> how to figure out a geometric problem (who has never studied it before) >> comes to see for himself, to recognize what the right answer to the problem is
Slave experiences state of aporia (perplexity)
Slave having recollection of knowledge through the help of Socrates questioning

Divine/wise people believe soul is immortal, not destroyed with the death of human body. Learning is recollection in which soul comes to remember what is already knew before birth (i.e. moral/theoretical knowledge)
Asks questions to recollect truth

Somehow the answer is inside of you
A priori – before experience (knowledge of geometry)
A posteriori – after experience

Recollection: solution to the problem of how we can try to find out the nature of something we do not yet know.

Socrates hypothesis >> if virtue is a sort of knowledge, then it could be taught
2nd hypothesis >> if there is anything good that is not knowledge, then it is possible that virtue is not a kind of knowledge

Since virtue is "something beneficial in the soul," and since what is beneficial is only so in the context of wisdom, it would seem that "virtue...as a whole or in part, is wisdom."

Anytus hates sophists (they rule corruption and their followers)
Socrates gives example of virtuous, well-respected men whose sons have turned out less than perfect.. anutys gets angry

No teachers of virtue >> now conclude that virtue cannot be taught at all, and therefore that it is not knowledge.

concluded that virtue is at least partly a kind of wisdom
concluded that virtue cannot be taught and that it is not innate
Thus, virtue is left as "a gift from the gods which is not accompanied by understanding." ncluded both

purpose of the Socratic Method is not to define beauty, or justice, or any other complex subject, but rather to improve human beings by increasing their understanding. The method is used to show that you know less than you think.. makes you more open minded
Answering questions that lead you to a discovery of either the answer or a new way of thinking gives you a rewarding sense of efficacy that can improve your confidence as well. Rather than simply being told how or what to think, the Socratic Method allows you to think for yourself. This unique ability to find your own way is gratifying and fulfilling; most importantly, it is lasting.
Socrates conviced 2 citizens and men of politics not only that they have no understanding of virtue, but also that no one does. This state of uncertainty, or aporia, the state of knowing that one does not know

• Philosopher and death
- If you practice philosophy, you practice for death. Death is separation of soul from the body. But philopshy is used to separating soul from body. Body is not useful to philosophy, so death is just an ultimate release
- Knowledge comes from soul, not sense because senses deceive you
- The body is too easily led astray and cannot grasp data. But most people believe in body than the soul

• Theory of recollection
- If we learn through recollection then the things we must know go to our soul. Birth and knowledge. Equality is not related to your senses; where does notion of equality even come from? Definitely not from your sensory data

• Argument of affinity
- Physical objects has changed between new and old
- Real me is my soul.
- Real things are those that unchanging.. such as the soul
- Soul: noncomposite: unchanging

• Final argument
- a being that does not exist in time at all is what is most real. Time, they often said, is unreal.
- Being temporarily present is the highest degree of existence

Nietzsche and Socrates

Nietzsche disagreed with Socrates because Socrates had an obsession with peace, perfection and death. Nietzsche disagreed with anything that takes value away from the earth to put it in a made-up realm of perfection